Tag Archives: technology

“We sell Hammers” – Not Security!

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“We sell Hammers” – Not Security!

“Several former Home Depot employees said they were not surprised the company had been hacked. They said that over the years, when they sought new software and training, managers came back with the same response: “We sell hammers.””

Failure to understand the dependence that we have not just on our obvious digital devices – smart phone, laptop, tablet, fancy fitness bling on your wrist – but also on a matrix of interconnection tying all these devices and billions more together – will land you in the hot seat. For about three billion out of the seven billion people on this planet, we have long since passed the point where we are isolated entities who act alone and in some measure of unconnected global anonymity. For most of us, our lives are not just dependent upon technology itself, but also on the capabilities of innumerable, faceless business entities acting on our behalf.

Consider the following, common, but trivial example.

When I swipe my credit card at the pump to purchase petrol, that transaction passes through any number of computation devices and applications operated by a chain of business entities. The following is a typical scenario (an example flow – but not the only one, of course):

  • The point of sale device1, itself (likely supplied by a point of sale provider)
  • The networking equipment at the station2
  • The station’s Internet provider’s equipment (networking, security, applications – you have no idea!)
  • One or more telecom company’s networking infrastructure across the Internet backbone
  • The point of sale company or their proxy
  • More networking equipment and Internet providers
  • A credit card payment processor
  • More networking equipment and Internet providers
  • The card issuer who must validate the card and agree to pay the transaction for me

And so on…. All just to fill my tank up. It’s seamless and invisible – the communications between entities usually bring up an encrypted tunnel, though the protection offered is not as solid as you may hope – Invisible and seamless, except when the processing is not so invisible, like during a compromise and breach.

Every one of these invisible players has to have good enough security to protect me, and you, if you also use some sort of payment card for your petrol.

Home Depot, and Target before them, (and who knows who’s next?) failed to understand that in order to sell a hammer in the Internet world, you’re participating in this huge web of digital interconnection. Even more so, if you’re large enough, your business network will have become an eco-system of digital entities, many of whose security practices will affect your security posture in fairly profound ways. When 2 (or more) systems connect, each may affect the security posture of the other, sometimes in profound ways.

And there be pirates in them waters, Matey. As I wrote in the introduction to my next book, Securing Systems: Applied security architecture and threat models:

“…as of this writing, we are engaged in a cyber arms race of extraordinary size, composition, complexity, and velocity.”

One of the biggest problems for security practitioners remains that the cyber “arms race” isn’t just between a couple of nation-states. Foremost, the nation-state cyber war has to cross the same digital ocean that we use for our daily lives and digital entertainment. The shared web makes every digital citizen, potential “collateral damage”. But, there are more players than governments.

As can occur in a ground war, virtual “warlords” have private cyber armies marauding for loot, my loot, your loot. Those phishing spam don’t come from your friends, right3? Just trying to categorize the various entities engaged in cyber attacks could generate a couple of fine PhD theses and perhaps even provide years of follow-on papers? The number and varying loyalties of the many players who carry out cyber attacks increases the “size” of the problem, adds to the “composition”, and generates a great deal of “complexity”. It’s enough to make a well-meaning box-store retailer bury its collective head in the virtual sand. Which is precisely what happened to that hammer seller, Home Depot.

But answering the “who” doesn’t complete the picture. There’s the macro “how”, as well4. The Internet seems to suffer the “tragedy of the commons“.

In order to keep the Internet sufficiently interesting with compelling content such that we want to participate, it absolutely must remain neutral in character5. While Internet democracy certainly appears to be quite messy, the very thing that drives the diversity of content on the Internet is its level playing field6.

But leaving the Internet as an open field for all to enjoy means that some will take advantage of the many simply because the “pickings” are too rich to ignore. There is just too much to steal to let those resources lay untouched. And the pirates don’t! People actually do answer those “Nigerian Prince” scam emails. Really, someone does. People do buy those knock-off drugs. For the 3 billion of us who are digitally connected, it’s a dangerous digital day, every single day. Watch what you click!

In short, if you’re reading this on my blog site, you are perhaps an unwitting participant in that “cyber arms race of extraordinary size, composition, complexity, and velocity.” And so is every business that employs modern digital capabilities, whether for payments, or any other task. Failure to understand just how dependent a business is upon this matrix of digital interaction will make one a Target (pun intended). CEO’s, you may want to pay closer attention? Ignoring the current realities could cost you your job, perhaps even your career7!

If you think that you only sell objects and not some level of digital security, I fear that you are likely to be very sadly mistaken?

cheers,

/brook

  1. My friend and former colleague, Lucy McCoy, wrote the communications code in the first generation of gas pump payment terminals. At that time, terminals communicated via modem and phone line. She was a serial communications wiz. I remember the point of sale terminal laid out in her lab area. Lucy has since passed away. She was a brilliant engineer; she gave my code the best quality testing ever.
  2. The transactions have to get from station to payment processing, right? Who runs those cable modems and routers at the station? Could be the Internet provider, or maybe not. I run my own modem/routers/switches at home to which I have full admin access.
  3. I don’t know any spammers, as far as I know? Perhaps I make an unwarranted assumption that you don’t, either?
  4. The “what” and “why” of cyber attack seem pretty clear. Beyond attackers after money, they are after some other advantage: geo-political, business, just causes (pick your favourite or most hated cause), career enhancement, what-have-you. This is all pretty well documented. The security industry seems preoccupied with the “what”, i.e., the technical details of exploits. Again, these technical details seem pretty well documented.
  5. Imagine if your most hated or feared government had control over your Internet use, even the Internet itself, and proceeded to feed you exactly what they wanted you to know and prevented you from any other content. How would you like that?
  6. The richness and depth that is an emergent and continuing quality of the Internet, to me, demonstrates the absolute genius of the originators and early framers of the protocols and design.
  7. Of course, if I had a severance of $15.9 million, maybe I wouldn’t very much mind ending my career?

Heartbleed Exposure, What Is It Really?

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Heartbleed Exposure, what is it really?

“Heap allocation patterns make private key exposure unlikely” Neel Mehta, discoverer of HeartBleed” 

In the media, there’s been a lot of discussion about what might be exposed from the heartbleed OpenSSL attack. It is certainly true that very sensitive items can be exposed. And over thousands of test runs, sensitive items like private keying materials and the like have been returned by the heartbleed buffer overread.

A very strong case can be made for doing exactly as industry due diligence suggests. Teams should replace private keys on servers that had been vulnerable, once these are patched. But should every person on the Internet change every password? Let’s examine that problems by digging into the details of exactly how heartbleed works.

First, heartbleed has been characterized as an “overflow” error: “Heartbleed is basically a buffer-overflow vulnerability”. This unfortunately is a poor descriptor and somewhat inaccurate. It may make better media copy, but calling heartbleed an “overflow” is a poor technical description upon which to base a measured response.

Heartbleed is not a classic buffer overflow. No flow control or executable code may be injected via heartbleed. A read of attacker chosen memory locations is not possible, as I will explain, below. A better descriptor of heartbleed is a “buffer over-read”. Unintentionally, some data from memory is returned to the attacker. To be precise, heartbleed is a data leak, not a flow control error.

In order to understand what’s possible to disclose, it’s key to understand program “heap” memory. The heap is an area of memory that programs use to store data. Generally speaking, well-written programs (like OpenSSL) do not to put executable code into heap (that is, data) memory[1]. Because data and execution are separated, the attacker has no way through this vulnerability to execute code. And that is key, as we shall see.

As a program runs, bits of data, large and small, temporary and more or less permanent for the run, are put into the heap[2]. Typically, data are put wherever is convenient at the moment of allocation, depending upon what memory is available.

Memory that’s been deallocated gets reused. If an available piece of memory happens to be larger than a requested size, the new sized piece will be filled with the new data, while adjacent to the new data will remain bits and pieces of whatever was there previously.

In other words, while not entirely random, the heap is filled with bits and pieces of data, a little from here, a little from there, a nice big chunk from this session, with a bit left over from some other session, all helter-skelter amongst each other. The heap is a jumble; taking random bits from the heap may be considered to be like attending a jumble sale.

Now, let’s return to heartbleed. The heartbleed bug returns whatever happens to be on the heap just above the 16 bytes that are required for the TLS heartbeat packet. The attacker may request as much as 64K bytes. That’s a nice big chunk of stuff from the heap; make no mistake about it. Anything might be in there. At the very least, decrypted  data intended for application processing will be returned to the attacker[3]. That’s certainly bad! It breaks the confidentiality supposedly gained through the TLS encryption. But getting a random bit is different than requesting an arbitrary memory location at the discretion of the attacker. And that is a very important statement to hold in mind as we respond to this very serious situation.

An analogy to Heartbleed might be a bit like going fishing. Sometimes, we fish where we can clearly see the fish (mountain streams) or signs of fish (clearer lakes), or with a “fish finder” appliance, that identifies fish  under the surface when the fish aren’t visible.

Heartbleed is a lot more like fishing for fish that are deep in a turbulent lake with no fish finding capability. The fisher is guessing. If she or he guesses correctly, fish for dinner. If not, it’s a long day holding onto the fishing rod.

In the same manner, the attacker, the “fisher” as it were, doesn’t know where the “fish”, the goodies are. The bait (the heartbleed request) is cast upon the “lake” (the program heap) in the hopes that a big fish will “bite” (secret “bytes” will get returned).

The attacker can heartbleed to her or his heart’s content (pun intended). That is, if left undiscovered, an attacker can continuously pound the other side of the connection with heartbleeds, perhaps thousands of times. Which means multiple chunks of memory will be returned to the attacker, as the heap allocates, deallocates, and moves data around.

Lots of different heap chunks will get returned. There will likely also be overlap between the chunks that are returned to the attacker. Somewhere within those memory chunks are likely to be some sensitive data. If the private key for a session happens to be in one of those chunks, it will be exposed to the attacker. If any particular session open through the OpenSSL library happens to a contain a password that had been transmitted, it’s been exposed. It won’t take an engineering genius to do an ASCII dump of returned chunks of memory in order to go poking about to find interesting bits.

Still, and nonetheless, this is hunting for goodies in a bit of a haystack. Some people are quite good at that. Let’s acknowledge that outright. But that’s very different than a directed attack.

And should a wise and prepared security team, making good use of appropriate security tools, notice a heartbleed attack, they will most likely kill the connection before thousands of buffers can be read. Heartbleed over any particular connection is a linear process, one packet retrieved at a time. Retrieving lots of data takes some time. Time to respond. Of course, an unprotected and unaware site could allow many sessions to get opened by an attacker, each linearly heartbled, thus revealing far more of what’s on the heap than a single session might. Wouldn’t you notice such anomalous behaviour?

It’s important to note that the returns in the heartbleed packets are not necessarily tied to the attackers’ session. Again, it’s whatever happens to be on the heap, which will contain parts of other sessions. And any particular heartbleed packet is not necessarily connected to the data in a previous or subsequent packet. Which means that there’s no continuity of session nor any linearity between heartbleed retrievals. All session continuity must be pieced together by the attacker. That’s not rocket science. But it’s also work, perhaps significant work.

I’ll reiterate in closing, that this is a dangerous bug to which we must respond in an orderly fashion.

On the other hand, this bug does not give attackers free reign to go after all the juicy targets that may be available on any host, server, or endpoint that happens to have OpenSSL installed. Whatever happens to be on the heap of the process using the OpenSSL library and that is adjacent to the heartbeat buffer will be returned. And that attack may only occur during a TLS session. Simply including the vulnerable library poses no risk, at all. Many programs make use of OpenSSL for other functionality beyond TLS sessions.

This bug is not the unfettered keys to the kingdom, unless a “key to the kingdom” just happens to be on the heap and happens to get returned in the over-read. What gets returned is entirely due to the distribution of the heap at the moment of that particular heartbeat.

Cheers,

/brook

These assertions have been demonstrated in the lab through numerous runs of the heartbleed attack by a  team who cannot be named here. My thanks to them for confirming this assessment. Sorry for not disclosing.

[1] There are plenty of specialized cases that break this rule. But typically, code doesn’t run from the heap; data goes onto the heap. And generally speaking, programs refrain from executing on the heap because it’s a poor security practice. Let’s make that assumption about OpenSSL (and there’s nothing to indicate that this is NOT true in this case), in order to make clear what’s going on with heartbleed.

[2] The libraries that support programs developed with the major development tools and running on the major operating systems have sophisticated heap management services that are consumed by the running application as it allocates and deallocates memory. While care must be exercised in languages like C/C++, the location of where data end up on the heap is controlled by these low-level services.

[3] That is, intended for the application that is using OpenSSL for TLS services.

RSA 2013 & Risk

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Monday, February 25th, I had the opportunity to participate in the Risk Seminar at RSA 2013.

My co-presenters/panelists are pursuing a number of avenues to strengthen not only their own practices, but for all. As I believe, it turns out that plenty of us practitioners have come to understand just how difficult a risk practice is. We work with an absence of hard longitudinal data, with literally thousands of variant scenarios, generally assessing ambiguous situations. Is that hard enough?

Further complicating our picture and methods is the lack of precision when we discuss risk. We all think we know what we mean, but do we? Threats get “prioritized” into risks. Vulnerabilities, taken by themselves with no context whatsoever, are assigned “risk levels”. Vulnerability discovery tools ratings don’t help this discussion.

We all intuitively understand what risk is; we calculate risk every day. We also intuitively understand that risk has a threat component, a vulnerability component, vulnerabilities have to be exploited, threats must have have the capacity and access to exploit. There are mitigation strategies, and risk always involves some sort of  impact or loss. But expressing these relationships is difficult. We want to shorthand all that complexity into simple, easily digestible statements.

Each RSA attendee received a magazine filled with short articles culled from the publisher’s risk archives. Within the first sentences risk was equated to threat (not that the writer bothered to define “threat”), to vulnerability, to exploit. Our risk language is a jumble!

Still, we plod on, doing the best that we can with the tools at hand, mostly our experience, our ability to correlate and analyze, and any wisdom that we may have picked up along the journey.

Doug Graham from EMC is having some success through focusing on business risk (thus bypassing all those arguments about whether that Cross-site Scripting Vulnerability is really, really dangerous). He has developed risk owners throughout his sister organizations much as I’ve used an extended team of security architects successfully at a number of organizations.

Summer Fowler from Carnegie-Mellon reported on basic research being done on just how we make risk decisions and how we can make our decisions more successful and relevant.

All great stuff, I think.

And me? I presented the risk calculation methodology that Vinay Bansal and I developed at Cisco, based on previous, formative work by Catherine Blackadder Nelson and Rakesh Bharania. Hopefully, someday, the SANS Institute will be able to publish the Smart Guide that Vinay and I wrote describing the method?*

That method, named “Just Good Enough Risk Rating” (JGERR) is lightweight and repeatable process through which assessors can generate numbers that are comparable. That is one of the most difficult issues we face today; my risk rating is quite likely to be different than yours.

It’s difficult to get the assessor’s bias out of risk ratings. Part of that work, I would argue, should be done by every assessor. Instead of pretending that one can be completely rational (impossible and actually wrong-headed, since risk always involves value judgements), I call upon us all to do our personal homework by understanding our own, unique risk preferences. At least let your bias be conscious and understood.

Still, JGERR and similar methods (there are similar methods, good ones! I’m not selling anything here) help to isolate assessor bias and at the very least put some rigour into the assessment.

Thanks  to Jack Jones’ FAIR risk methodology, upon which JGERR is partly based, I believe that we can adopt a consistent risk lexicon, developing a more rigorous understand of the relationships between the various components that make up a risk calculation. Thanks, Jack. Sorry that I missed you; you were speaking at the same time that I was in the room next door to mine. Sigh.

As Chris Houlder, CISO of Autodesk, likes to say, “progress, not perfection”. Yeah, I think I see a few interesting paths to follow.

cheers

/brook

*In order to generate some demand, may I suggest that you contact SANS and tell them that you’d like the guide? The manuscript has been finished and reviewed for more than a year as of this post.

SANS Security Architecture

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There are plenty of security conferences, to be sure. You can get emersed in the nitty gritty of attack exploits, learn to better analyze intrusion logs, even work on being a better manager of information security folks (like me).

In the plethora of conferences trying to get your attention, there is one area that doesn’t get much space: Security Architecture.

While the Open Group has finally recognized the Security Architect discipline, conferences dedicated to the practice have been too few and too far between. The SANS Institute hosted one last year in Las Vegas. It was such a success that they’ve decided to do it again.

SANS Security Architecture: Baking Security Into Applications And Networks

This year’s conference is intended to bring security architecture to the practical. The conference will be chock full of approaches and techniques that you can use “whole hog” or cherry pick for those portions which make sense for your organization.

Why do security architects need a conference of their own?

If you ask me (which you didn’t!), security architecture is a difficult, complex practice. There are many branches of knowledge, technical, organizational, political, personal that get brought together by the successful architect. It’s frustrating; it’s tricky. It’s often more Art than engineering.

We need each other, not just to commiserate, but to support each other, to help each other take this Art and make what we do more repeatable, more sustainable, more effective. And, many times when I’ve spoken about the discipline publicly, those who are new to security architecture want to know how to learn, what to learn, how to build a programme. From my completely unscientific experience, there seems a strong need for basic information on how to get started and how to grow.

Why do organizations need Information Security Architects? Well, first off, probably not every organization does need them. But certainly if your organization’s security universe is complex, your projects equally complex, then architecture may be of great help. My friend, Srikanth Narasimhan, has a great presentation on “The Long Tail of Architecture”, explaining where the rewards are found from Enterprise Architecture.

Architecture rewards are not reaped upfront. In fact, applying system architecture principles and processes will probably slow development down. But, when a system is designed not just for the present, but the future requirements; when a system supports a larger strategy and is not entirely tactical; when careful consideration has been given to how seeming disparate systems interact and depend, as things change, that’s where architecting systems delivers it’s rewards.

A prime example of building without architecture is the Winchester Mystery House in San Jose, California, USA. It’s a fun place to visit, with its stairwells without destination, windows opening to walls, and so on. Why? The simple answer is, “no architecture”.

So if your security systems seem like a version of the “Mystery House”, perhaps you need some architecture help?

Security Architecture brings the long tail of reward through planning, strategy, holism, risk practice, “top to bottom, front to back, side to side” view of the matrix of flows and system components to build a true defense in depth. It’s become too complex to simply deploy the next shiney technology and put these in without carefully considering how each part of the defense in depth depends upon and affects, interacts, with the others.

The security architecture contains a focus that addresses how seeming disparate security technologies and processes fit into a whole. And, solutions focused security architects help to build holistic security into systems; security architecture is a fundamental domain of an Enterprise Architecture practice. I’ve come to understand that security architecture has (at least) these two foci, largely through attending last year’s conference. I wonder what I’ll gain this year?

Please join me  in Washington DC, September 28-30, 2011 for SANS Security Architecture.

cheers

/brook